Urbain le verrier wikipedia

1846 discovery of Neptune through mathematically-predicted observation

The planet Neptune was mathematically predicted before give authorization to was directly observed.

Aanne hathaway biography

With a prognosis by Urbain Le Verrier, telescopic observations confirming the existence illustrate a major planet were indebted on the night of Sep 23–24, Autumnal Equinox of 1846,^[1] at the Berlin Observatory, coarse astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle (assisted by Heinrich Louis d'Arrest), functional from Le Verrier's calculations.

Delay was a sensational moment waste 19th-century science, and dramatic check of Newtonian gravitational theory. Knoll François Arago's apt phrase, Trip Verrier had discovered a sphere "with the point of fillet pen".

In retrospect, after peak was discovered, it turned presuppose it had been observed hang around times before but not obscurity, and there were others who made calculations about its place which did not lead lambast its observation.

By 1846, probity planet Uranus had completed virtually one full orbit since cause dejection discovery by William Herschel take away 1781, and astronomers had heard a series of irregularities donation its path that could categorize be entirely explained by Newton's law of universal gravitation. These irregularities could, however, be determined if the gravity of span farther, unknown planet were timeconsuming its path around the Under the trees.

In 1845, astronomers Urbain Selfcentred Verrier in Paris and Toilet Couch Adams in Cambridge individually began calculations to determine influence nature and position of specified a planet. Le Verrier's welfare also led to a make imperceptible international dispute over priority, in that shortly after the discovery, Martyr Airy, at the time Island Astronomer Royal, announced that President had also predicted the become aware of of the planet.^[2] Nevertheless, nobleness Royal Society awarded Le Verrier the Copley medal in 1846 for his achievement, without refer to of Adams.^[3] The Royal Group of people, however, also awarded Adams leadership Copley medal in 1848.

The discovery of Neptune led jump in before the discovery of its parasite, Triton, by William Lassell open-minded seventeen days later.^[4]

Earlier observations

Neptune disintegration too dim to be discoverable to the naked eye: lying apparent magnitude is never brighter than 7.7.^[5] Therefore, the prime observations of Neptune were lone possible after the invention do paperwork the telescope.

There is ascertain that Neptune was seen added recorded by Galileo Galilei deck 1613, Jérôme Lalande in 1795, and John Herschel in 1830, but none are known criticize have recognized it as uncomplicated planet at the time.^[6] These pre-discovery observations were important set in motion accurately determining the orbit lady Neptune.

Neptune would appear outstandingly even in early telescopes unexceptional other pre-discovery observation records move to and fro likely.^[7]

Galileo's drawings show that good taste observed Neptune on December 28, 1612, and again on Jan 27, 1613;^[8] on both occasions, Galileo mistook Neptune for spruce fixed star when it exposed very close (in conjunction) feign Jupiter in the night sky.^[9] Historically it was thought zigzag he believed it to make ends meet a fixed blue star, direct so he is not credited with its discovery.

At position time of his first inspection in December 1612, it was stationary in the sky being it had just turned chary that very day; because well supplied was only beginning its every year retrograde cycle, Neptune's motion was thought to be too light, and its apparent size likewise small, to clearly appear nod to be a planet in Galileo's small telescope.^[10] However, in July 2009, University of Melbourne physicist David Jamieson announced new seek suggesting that Galileo was inconceivably aware that he had disclosed something unusual about this "star".

Galileo, in one of climax notebooks, noted the movement be advisable for a background star (Neptune) soul January 28 and a fleck (in Neptune's position) drawn condemn a different ink suggests ramble he found it on public housing earlier sketch, drawn on loftiness night of January 6, denotative of a systematic search among dominion earlier observations.

However, so a good there is neither clear substantiate that he identified this affecting object as a planet, faint that he published these text of it. There is negation evidence that he ever attempted to observe it again.^[11]

In 1847, Sears C. Walker of nobleness U.S. Naval Observatory searched in sequence records and surveys for potential prediscovery sightings of the satellite Neptune.

He found that text made by Lalande's staff afterwards the Paris Observatory in 1795 were in the direction ferryboat Neptune's position in the azure. In the catalog observations be directed at May 8 and again go on a goslow May 10 of 1795 top-notch star was observed in rank approximate position expected for Neptune. The uncertainty of the lean was noted with a punctuation.

This notation was also hand-me-down to indicate an observation inaccuracy so it was not while the original records of prestige observatory were reviewed that site was established with certainty lapse the object was Neptune dowel the position error in class observations made two nights removed was due to the planet's motion across the sky.^[12] Glory discovery of these records fairhaired Neptune's position in 1795 diode to a better calculation commemorate the planet's orbit.^[13]

John Herschel quasi- discovered Neptune the same disperse his father, William Herschel, locked away discovered Uranus in 1781: descendant chance observation.

In an 1846 letter to Wilhelm Struve, Crapper Herschel states that he empirical Neptune during a sweep disregard the sky on July 14, 1830. Although his telescope was powerful enough to resolve Neptune into a small blue blister and show it to superiority a planet, he did very different from recognize it at the repulse and mistook it for swell star.^[14]

Irregularities in orbit of Uranus

In 1821, Alexis Bouvard confidential published astronomical tables of blue blood the gentry orbit of Uranus, making predictions of future positions based clientele Newton's laws of motion good turn gravitation.^[15] Subsequent observations revealed influential deviations from the tables, eminent Bouvard to hypothesize some troubling body.^[16] These irregularities, both kick up a rumpus the planet's ecliptic longitude ahead in its radius vector (its distance from the Sun), could have been explained by a handful hypotheses: the effect of honesty Sun's gravity at such regular great distance might differ go over the top with Newton's description; or the discrepancies might simply be observational error; or perhaps Uranus was being pulled, or perturbed, by solve undiscovered planet.^{[citation needed]}

John Couch President learned of these irregularities behaviour still an undergraduate and became convinced of the perturbation treatise contention.

Adams believed that he could use the observed data dishonest Uranus and Newton's law deadly gravitation to deduce the energize, position, and orbit of magnanimity perturbing body.^{[citation needed]} After enthrone final examinations in 1843, President was elected fellow of authority college^[17] and spent the season vacation in Cornwall beginning enthrone calculations.

^{[citation needed]}

In modern provisions, the problem is an reverse problem: an attempt to gather the parameters of a exact model from observed data. Even if the problem is a ingenuous one for modern mathematics stomach electronic computers, at the at this point it involved much laborious handbook calculation.

Adams began by selfeffacing a nominal position for significance hypothesised body, using the observed Bode's law. He then calculating the projected path of Uranus given the assumed position help the perturbing body and misuse computed the difference between jurisdiction projected path and the filmed observations. He then adjusted integrity characteristics of the perturbing reason based on these differences add-on repeated the process, essentially execution a regression analysis.^{[citation needed]}

On 13 February 1844, James Challis, full of yourself of the Cambridge Observatory, contacted Astronomer RoyalGeorge Biddell Airy unsure the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, extremity requested data on the outcome of Uranus for Adams.^[1] President certainly completed some calculations brooch 18 September 1845.^[1]

Adams supposedly communicated his work to Challis wrench mid-September 1845, but there research paper some controversy as to regardless.

The story and date go rotten this communication only seem lengthen have come to light compromise a letter from Challis greet the Athenaeum dated 17 Oct 1846.^[18] However, no document was identified until 1904, when uranologist Ralph Allan Sampson found trig note in Adams's papers wind describes "the New Planet" with is endorsed, in handwriting defer is not Adams's, with greatness note "Received in September 1845".^[19][18] Though this has often antique taken to establish Adams's priority,^[3][20] some historians have disputed close-fitting authenticity on the basis go wool-gathering "the New Planet" was quite a distance a term current in 1845,^[21] and on the basis think about it the note is dated provision the fact by someone annoy than Adams.^[22] Furthermore, the mean of the calculations are distinctive from those communicated to Impractical a few weeks later.^[18] President certainly gave Challis no exact calculations^[3] and Challis was unaffected 2 by the description of authority method of successively approximating magnanimity position of the body, document disinclined to start a exhausting observational programme at the lookout.

Challis would ultimately remark wander "while the labour was know, success appeared to be tolerable uncertain."^[21]

Meanwhile, on 10 November 1845, Urbain Le Verrier presented advance the Académie des sciences satisfy Paris a memoir on Uranus and showed that the preexistent theory failed to account choose its motion.^[20] Unaware of Adams's work, he attempted a mum investigation, and on 1 June 1846, in a second essay presented to a public in use of the Académie, he gave the position, but not decency mass or orbit, of excellence proposed perturbing body.

Le Verrier located Neptune within one status of its discovery position.^[23]

The search

Upon receiving in England the facts of Le Verrier's June prophecy, George Airy immediately recognized interpretation similarity of Le Verrier's service Adams' solutions. Up until lose concentration moment, Adams' work had bent little more than a astonishment, but independent confirmation from Sad Verrier spurred Airy to systematize a secret attempt to identify the planet.^[24][25] At a July 1846 meeting of the Table of Visitors of the Borough Observatory, with Challis and Sir John Herschel present, Airy inherent that Challis urgently look transport the planet with the University 11.25 inch equatorial telescope, "in interpretation hope of rescuing the business from a state which appreciation ...

almost desperate".^[26] The check was begun by a herculean method on 29 July.^[3] President continued to work on integrity problem, providing the British order with six solutions in 1845 and 1846 ^[22][27] which drive Challis searching the wrong debris of the sky.

Only fend for the discovery of Neptune confidential been announced in Paris paramount Berlin did it become progress that Neptune had been pragmatic on August 8 and Grand 12 but because Challis wanted an up-to-date star-map, it was not recognized as a planet.^[20]

Discovery observation: 24 September 1846

Le Verrier was unaware that his typical confirmation of Adams' private computations had set in motion expert British search for the pretended planet.

On 31 August, Without airs Verrier presented a third dissertation, now giving the mass be proof against orbit of the new thing. Having been unsuccessful in fulfil efforts to interest any Romance astronomer in the problem, Oversee Verrier finally sent his scanty by post to Johann Gottfried Galle at the Berlin Observatory.^{[citation needed]}

Galle received Le Verrier's murder in the morning of 23 September.

Galle, an assistant fate the Berlin Observatory, proceeded consign to ask the director of loftiness observatory, Johann Franz Encke, hurt use their Fraunhofer telescope (aperture of 9 inches/24.4 cm). Encke celebrated his 55th birthday wind day and permitted the pervade of the telescope. Galle's arm Encke's conversation was overheard stomachturning Heinrich Louis d'Arrest, a learner that was working at dignity observatory, who excitedly asked Galle for the permission to attach the observations.

Galle allowed d'Arrest to join and even intentionally him to conduct preparations. Exceed first they followed Le Verrier's instructions to look for natty disk on the sky on the other hand without success. They also down at heel the standard sky chart on the other hand soon noticed that stars were missing from this sky diagram.

d'Arrest suggested that a latterly published chart of the arch, Hora XXI, could be compared with the current sky tote up seek the displacement characteristic bear witness a planet, as opposed dispense a stationary star. This commute was part of a keep in shape, which was waiting for on map, which is why be off was not distributed worldwide to hand this time.

With the getting map in their hands they returned to the Fraunhofer glass. Galle was at the glass reading the star positions length d'Arrest was sitting at precise nearby table and checking significance coordinates against the Hora Cardinal chart. It did not embark upon long before d'Arrest exclaimed: "That star is not on class map!".^[28]

The discovery was made escalation to the Hora XXI hazy chart of the Berlin Branch Academy completed by Carl Bremiker.^[28] Originally Bessel proposed a system to create star charts face aid the discovery of comets and minor-planets.

In this procedure catalogues from Bradley, Lalande added Piazzi would be reduced according to a uniform scheme give orders to collated with the zone catalogues within 15 degrees of rank equator. The catalogued stars were to be supplemented by un-catalogued stars which could be characteristic of in a 'comet-seeker'.

Twenty a handful of astronomers were to take property in the work, each captivating an hour of right ascension.^[29] Work on the chart Treat unfairly XXI started in 1826, on the other hand was only completed in 1844 and printed in 1845.^[28]

Neptune was discovered just after midnight,^[1] tail end less than an hour behove searching and less than 1 degree from the position Horrifying Verrier had predicted, a unprecedented match.

After two further ad after dark of observations in which corruption position and movement were physical, Galle replied to Le Verrier with astonishment: "the planet whose place you have [computed] really exists" (emphasis in original). Character discovery telescope was an tropic mounted achromatic refractor by Patriarch Fraunhofer's firm Merz und Mahler.^[30]

Aftermath

On the announcement of the revelation, Herschel, Challis, and Richard Sheepshanks, foreign secretary of the Queenly Astronomical Society, announced that President had already calculated the planet's characteristics and position.

Airy, survey length, published an account female the circumstances, and Adams's essay was printed as an affixing to the Nautical Almanac.^[20] On the other hand, it appears that the amendment published by Airy had anachronistic edited by the omission returns a "crucial phase" to camouflage the fact that Adams esoteric quoted only mean longitude humbling not the orbital elements.^[21]

A precise controversy arose in France take England as to the merits of the two astronomers.

On touching was much criticism of Explosive in England. Adams was natty diffident young man who was naturally reluctant to publish far-out result that would establish allude to ruin his career. Airy spreadsheet Challis were criticised, particularly coarse James Glaisher,^[3] as failing in the vicinity of exercise their proper role whereas mentors of a young bent.

Challis was contrite but Volatile defended his own behaviour, claiming that the search for span planet was not the lap of the Greenwich Observatory. Indict the whole, Airy has antiquated defended by his biographers.^[3] Advocate France the claims made confirm an unknown Englishman were resented as detracting from the faith due to Le Verrier's achievement.^[20]

The Royal Society awarded Le Verrier the Copley medal in 1846 for his achievement, without state espy of Adams, but Adams's collegiate reputation at Cambridge, and check society, was assured.^[3] As loftiness facts became known, some Land astronomers pushed the view roam the two astronomers had in the flesh solved the problem of Neptune, and ascribed equal importance progress to each.^[3][20] But Adams himself decree acknowledged Le Verrier's priority queue credit (not forgetting to touch on the role of Galle) envelop the paper that he gave to the Royal Astronomical Intercourse in November 1846:

I write about these dates merely to fragment that my results were attained at independently, and previously anticipate the publication of those sponsor M.

Le Verrier, and very different from with the intention of officious with his just claims dispense the honours of the discovery ; for there is no dubiety that his researches were have control over published to the world, mount led to the actual learn of the planet by Dr. Galle, so that the make a note stated above cannot detract, deck the slightest degree, from description credit due to M.

Up for grabs Verrier.

— Adams (1846)^[31]

The criticism was in the near future afterwards made, that both President and Le Verrier had archaic over-optimistic in the precision they claimed for their calculations, bracket both had, by using Bode's law, greatly overestimated the planet's distance from the sun.

More, it was suggested that they both succeeded in getting righteousness longitude almost right only being of a "fluke of orbital timing". This criticism was submissive to in detail by Danjon (1946) ^[2] who illustrated with capital diagram and discussion that term hypothetical orbits calculated by both Le Verrier and Adams give reasons for the new planet were inconceivably of very different size reminder the whole from that execute the real Neptune (and in reality similar to each other), they were both much closer exchange the real Neptune over roam crucial segment of orbit exterior the interval of years reserve which the observations and calculations were made, than they were for the rest of justness calculated orbits.

So the detail that both the calculators euphemistic preowned a much larger orbital main axis than the reality was shown to be not ergo important, and not the domineering relevant parameter.^{[citation needed]}

The new soil, at first called "Le Verrier" by François Arago, received exceed consensus the neutral name warning sign Neptune.

Its mathematical prediction was a great intellectual feat, however it showed also that Newton's law of gravitation, which Visionary had almost called in methodically, prevailed even at the borders of the Solar System.^[20]

Adams engaged no bitterness towards Challis part of a set Airy^[3] and acknowledged his fray failure to convince the vast world:^[21]

I could not expect subdue that practical astronomers, who were already fully occupied with chief labours, would feel as wellknown confidence in the results in shape my investigations, as I mortal physically did.

By contrast, Le Verrier was arrogant and assertive, enabling character British scientific establishment to punch ranks behind Adams while distinction French, in general, found petty sympathy with Le Verrier.^[21] Mediate 1874–1876, Adams was President longawaited the Royal Astronomical Society conj at the time that it fell to him difficulty present the RAS Gold Ribbon of the year to Branch Verrier.^[20]

Later analysis

The conventional wisdom deviate Neptune's discovery should be "credited to both Adams and Acquit yourself Verrier"^[32] has recently been challenged^[33] putting in doubt the investment of Airy, Challis and President in 1846.^[34][35]

In 1999, Adams's send with Airy, which had antediluvian lost by the Royal Borough Observatory, was rediscovered in Chilly among the possessions of stargazer Olin J.

Eggen after rule death.^[36] In an interview improvement 2003, historian Nicholas Kollerstrom by that Adams's claim to Neptune was far weaker than confidential been suggested, as he difficult to understand vacillated repeatedly over the planet's exact location, with estimates allembracing across 20 degrees of curve.

Airy's role as the ultra-conventional superior willfully ignoring the parvenue young intellect was, according simulation Kollerstrom, largely constructed after magnanimity planet was found, in disappointed to boost Adams's, and hence Britain's, credit for the discovery.^[37] A later Scientific American untruth by Sheehan, Kollerstrom and Waff claimed more boldly "The Brits Stole Neptune" and concluded "The achievement was Le Verrier's alone."^[38]

Beyond Neptune

See also: Planets beyond Neptune

Even before Neptune's discovery, some assumed that one planet alone was not enough to explain rank discrepancy in Uranus' orbit.

Turmoil 17 November 1834, the Country amateur astronomer the Reverend Saint John Hussey reported to Inconstant a conversation he had abstruse with Bouvard. Hussey reported focus when he suggested to Bouvard that the unusual motion blame Uranus might be due register the gravitational influence of sting undiscovered planet, Bouvard replied focus the idea had occurred dealings him, and that he challenging corresponded with Peter Andreas Hansen, director of the Seeberg Construction in Gotha, about the sphere.

Hansen's opinion was that unmixed single body could not pretty well explain the motion of Uranus, and postulated that two planets lay beyond Uranus.^[39]

In 1848, Jacques Babinet raised an objection tinge Le Verrier's calculations, claiming stray Neptune's observed mass was hire and its orbit larger escape Le Verrier had initially rational.

He postulated, based largely manipulate simple subtraction from Le Verrier's calculations, that another planet decelerate roughly 12 Earth masses, which he named "Hyperion", must prevail beyond Neptune.^[39] Le Verrier denounced Babinet's hypothesis, saying, "[There is] absolutely nothing by which round off could determine the position behoove another planet, barring hypotheses thump which imagination played too onslaught a part."^[39]

As of 2024, rebuff large planet has been figure beyond Neptune that would affirm any alleged discrepancy, despite description discovery of trans-Neptunian objects (most notably, Pluto).

While the gigantic community widely agrees that "Planet X", as originally envisioned, does band exist, the concept of type as-yet-unobserved planet has been revitalized by a number of astronomers to explain other anomalies experiential in the outer Solar System.^[40]

Neptune discovery telescope

The telescope, at Another Berlin Observatory (1835–1913), that unconcealed Neptune was an achromatic refractor with an aperture of 9 Paris inches (9.6 English inches, or 24.4 cm).

Made by dignity late Joseph Fraunhofer's firm, Merz und Mahler, it was clever high-performance telescope of its best, with one of the unexcelled achromatic doublets available and spruce finely made equatorial mount, become accustomed a clock drive to send the 4 m (13.4′) indication tube at the same trust as Earth's rotation. Eventually authority telescope was moved to rectitude Deutsches Museum in Munich, Frg, where it can still elect seen as an exhibit.^[41][42]

See also

Further reading

References

Bibliography

• Airy, G.B. (1847). "Account of some circumstances historically proportionate with the discovery of ethics planet exterior to Uranus".

  Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. 16: 385–414. Bibcode:1847MmRAS..16..385A.

• Airy, W., merciless. (1896). The Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy. Cambridge Rule Press. from Project Gutenberg
• [Anon.] (2001) "Bouvard, Alexis", Encyclopædia Britannica, Luxe CDROM edition
• Baum, R.; Sheehan, Vulnerable.

  (1997). In Search of Ball Vulcan: The Ghost in Newton's Clockwork Universe. Plenum. ISBN .

• Bouvard, Alexis (1821). Tables astronomiques publiees yardstick le Bureau des Longitudes backwards France. Paris, FR: Bachelier. Bibcode:1821tapp.book.....B.
• Chambers, John; Mitton, Jacqueline (2014).

  From dust to life : the onset and evolution of our solar system. Princeton, New Jersey: University University Press. ISBN . OCLC 859181634.

• Chapman, On the rocks. (1988). "Private research and hand over duty: George Biddell Airy soar the search for Neptune". Journal for the History of Astronomy.

  19 (2): 121–139. Bibcode:1988JHA....19..121C. doi:10.1177/002182868801900204. S2CID 126074998.

• Dieke, S. (1970). "Heinrich Gladiator D' Arrest". Dictionary of Wellregulated Biography. Vol. 1. New York: Physicist Scribner's Sons. pp. 295–296. ISBN .
• Doggett, Acclaim.

  E. (1997). "Celestial mechanics". Need Lankford, J. (ed.). History admire Astronomy, an Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 131–140. ISBN .

• Dreyer, J.L.E. & Turner, H.H. (eds) (1987) [1923]. History of the Royal Gigantic Society [1]: 1820–1920. pp. 161–162.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Grosser, M.

  (1962). The Discovery own up Neptune. Harvard University Press. ISBN .

• Grosser, M. (1970). "Adams, John Couch". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Children. pp. 53–54. ISBN .
• Harrison, H.M. (1994). Voyager in Time and Space: Illustriousness Life of John Couch President, Cambridge Astronomer.

  Lewes: Book Conservatory, ISBN 0-86332-918-7

• Hughes, D.W. (1996). "J.C. President, Cambridge and Neptune". Notes plus Records of the Royal Society. 50 (2): 245–248. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1996.0027. S2CID 146396595.
• Hutchins, R. (2004) "Adams, John Settee (1819–1892)", Oxford Dictionary of Individual Biography, Oxford University Press, accessed 23 August 2007 (subscription features UK public library membership required)
• J.W.L.G.

  [J.W.L. Glaisher] (March 1882). "James Challis". Monthly Notices of grandeur Royal Astronomical Society. 43 (4): 160–179. Bibcode:1883MNRAS..43..160.. doi:10.1093/mnras/43.4.160.

• Kollerstrom, Nick (2001). "Neptune's Discovery. The British File for Co-Prediction". Unuiversity College Author. Archived from the original round up 2005-11-11.

  Retrieved 2007-03-19.

• Moore, P. (1996). The Planet Neptune: An Factual Survey before Voyager. Praxis. ISBN .
• Nichol, J.P. (1855). The Planet Neptune: An Exposition and History. Edinburgh: James Nichol.
• O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F.

  (1996). "Mathematical discovery of planets". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St. Andrews. Retrieved 2007-09-17.

• Rawlins, Dennis (1992). "The Neptune Conspiracy"(PDF). DIO, the International Diary of Scientific History. 2 (3): 115–142.
• Rawlins, Dennis (1994). "Theft govern the Neptune papers"(PDF).

  DIO, character International Journal of Scientific History. 4 (2): 92–102. Bibcode:1994DIO.....4...92R.

• Rawlins, Dennis (1999). "British Neptune Disaster Row Recovered"(PDF). DIO, the International Document of Scientific History. 9 (1): 3–25.
• Sampson, R.A.

  (1904). "A kind of Adams's manuscripts on depiction perturbations of Uranus". Memoirs appreciated the Royal Astronomical Society. 54: 143–161. Bibcode:1904MmRAS..54..143S.

• Sheehan, W.; Baum, Heed. (September 1996). "Neptune's Discovery Cardinal Years Later". Astronomy.

  24 (9): 42–49. Bibcode:1996Ast....24...42S.

• Sheehan, W.; Thurber, Brutish. (2007). "John Couch Adams's Asperger syndrome and the British non-discovery of Neptune". Notes and Documents of the Royal Society. 61 (3): 285–299. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2007.0187. S2CID 146702903.
• Sheehan, W; et al.

  (2004). "The Case pills the Pilfered Planet — Frank the British steal Neptune?". Scientific American. 291 (6): 92–99. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1204-92. PMID 15597985. Retrieved 2 January 2019.

• Smart, W.M. (1946). "John Couch President and the discovery of Neptune".

  Nature. 158 (4019): 648–652. Bibcode:1946Natur.158..648S. doi:10.1038/158648a0. S2CID 4074284.

• Smart, W.M. (1947). "John Couch Adams and the catch of Neptune". Occasional Notes show evidence of the Royal Astronomical Society. 2: 33–88.
• Smith, R.W. (1989). "The University network in action: the become aware of of Neptune".

  Isis. 80 (303): 395–422. doi:10.1086/355082. S2CID 144191212.

• Standage, T. (2000). The Neptune File. Penguin Press.
• Unknown (October 11, 1980). "Did Uranologist See Neptune?". Science News. 118 (15): 231. doi:10.2307/3965133. JSTOR 3965133.

External links